Role Theory

Role theory in international relations draws on sociology, and is related to the constructivist tradition. Within a social environment, actors adopt certain roles. Their role conception prescribes for themselves how they should behave vis-à-vis others. The notion of role stands very close to identity; role flows from the answer to the question Who am I? and indicates which behavior should follow from a certain identity. Behavior that implements a role conception is called role performance. Kal Holsti defined a state’s national role conception as follows (Holsti, 1970):

A national role conception includes the policymakers’ own definitions of the general kinds of decisions, commitments, rules and actions suitable to their state, and of the functions, if any, their state should perform on a continuing basis in the international system or in subordinate regional systems. It is their “image” of the appropriate orientations or functions of their state toward, or in, the external environment.

Not only states, also international organizations such as the EU, IMF or G20 have a role conception for themselves. An actor’s role conception is formed through a combination of internal and external dynamics. Internally, a state or other political actor has some agency to define its own identity and interests and conceive a role accordingly. At the same time, an actor’s role conception is externally constrained and informed by its position in the international system as well as the actual interactions with others. Part of this external influence stems from what others, i.e. relevant external actors, expect of the actor. In other worlds, the actor’s role conception will factor in others’ role expectations or role prescriptions. In reality, these internal and external dynamics permanently influence each other (Aggestam, 2006; Breuning, 2011; Harnisch, 2011).

Liberal internationalist US policymakers, for example, cherish the idea that the US is a unique nation, because it is governed as an ideal-typical liberal democracy that rests on natural law-like values such as equality among all citizens and political and economic freedom. Consequently, the US defines itself as a ‘beacon of hope’ and therefore ‘bound to lead.’ These beliefs and mentality – however disputable in many respects – is often referred to as US exceptionalism (Hughes, 2015; Patman & Southgate, 2016). This role conception is externally reinforced by the structural reality that the US is economically and militarily the most powerful country. Furthermore, it is somewhat fed by the role prescriptions of US allies and parts of the global public opinion – even though many others oppose any US bid to world leadership.

In a complex world, actors such as states can have multiple roles. They can experience role conflicts. According to Aggestam, “[a] role conflict exists when dominant role conceptions in the role-set are incompatible with one another” (2006, p. 23). In that case, different role conceptions prescribe incompatible behavior. For example, the EU is currently at odds with itself trying to combine its role as global defender of human rights and its role as tough guardian of the member states’ borders through Frontex and other policies, which erode the right to asylum and close off safe routes for regular migration with dire consequences.